Subqueries are a fundamental component of SQL that let you execute intricate queries within of more comprehensive queries. They are an effective tool in SQL for carrying out intricate data analysis and manipulation. There are three primary categories of subqueries: scalar subqueries, correlated subqueries, and EXISTS/NOT EXISTS subqueries.

Correlated Subqueries
Correlated subqueries are subqueries that reference a column from the outer query. This makes them dependent on the outer query's results, meaning the subquery is executed once for each row of the outer query.

Example. Finding employees whose salary is greater than the average salary of their department.

SELECT employee_name, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary > (
  SELECT AVG(salary)
  FROM employees AS dept_avg
  WHERE dept_avg.department = employees.department
);

In this example, the subquery calculates the average salary for each department, and the outer query compares each employee's salary against that average. The subquery depends on the DepartmentID from the outer query, making it correlated.

When to Use?
When you need to compare each row in a table against a calculated value from related data.
For filtering data based on conditions that vary with each row.

Scalar Subqueries
A scalar subquery returns a single value, making it ideal for use in expressions where a single value is required. Scalar subqueries can be used in SELECT, WHERE, and ORDER BY clauses, among others.

Example. Finding the average salary in the company.
SELECT employee.name, (SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employee) AS average_salary
FROM employee;

Here, the subquery calculates the average salary for all employees, and the result is assigned to the average_salary column in the outer query.

When to Use?
When you need to include a single value in your main query, such as a count, average, or specific calculation.
For calculating values dynamically based on related data.

EXISTS and NOT EXISTS

EXISTS and NOT EXISTS subqueries are used to check for the existence or non-existence of rows in a subquery. These operators return a boolean value (TRUE or FALSE), making them useful for conditional queries.

Example. Finding departments that have employees earning more than 100,000.
SELECT department
FROM departments
WHERE EXISTS (
  SELECT 1
  FROM employees
  WHERE employees.department = departments.department
    AND employees.salary > 100000
);

In this query, the outer query returns departments. The subquery checks if there are any employees for that department who have a salary greater than 100,000.

When to Use?
Use EXISTS when you need to check if a related record exists.
Use NOT EXISTS to filter out records that have a related record.

Conclusion

Subqueries are a fundamental tool in SQL for performing complex data manipulations and retrieving specific subsets of data. By understanding the different types of subqueries, you can effectively leverage them to solve a wide range of data-related problems.

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With the help of SQL triggers, you can set up automatic batch SQL code execution for when particular events take place in your database. They are especially helpful for tracking modifications to your database tables, automating administrative activities, and preserving data integrity. This article will explain SQL triggers and provide an example of how to use them to log changes made to a product table into a product_log table, allowing you to follow such changes.

An SQL Trigger: What Is It?
A SQL trigger is a unique kind of stored procedure that is "triggered"—or automatically carried out—in response to specific events on a given database or view. INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE actions are examples of these events. Triggers facilitate the automation of processes including updating relevant data, enforcing rules, and logging.

Components of a SQL Trigger

• Trigger Name: A unique name to identify the trigger.
• Trigger Timing: Specifies when the trigger should fire (e.g., AFTER, BEFORE).
• Trigger Event: The database operation that activates the trigger (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE).
• Trigger Action: The SQL code that is executed when the trigger is fired.

Example Scenario
Suppose we have a table called [inventory].[products] where product details are stored. We want to track all changes made to this table by logging these changes into a product_log table.

Here’s how you can set this up.

Step 1. Create the Log Table
First, create a table to store the log entries. This table will capture the details of any changes made to the products table.
CREATE TABLE inventory.product_log (
    log_id INT IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,
    action_type NVARCHAR(50),
    product_id INT,
    product_name VARCHAR(255),
    quantity INT,
    price DECIMAL(18, 2),
    change_date DATETIME DEFAULT GETDATE()
);

log_id: A unique identifier for each log entry.
action_type: Describes the type of action that occurred (INSERT, UPDATE).
product_id: The ID of the product that was changed.
product_name: The name of the product.
quantity: The quantity of the product.
price: The price of the product.
change_date: The date and time when the change occurred.

Step 2. Create the Trigger
Next, create a trigger that logs changes to the products table.
CREATE TRIGGER trg_productLog
ON inventory.products
AFTER INSERT, UPDATE
AS
BEGIN
    -- Log the inserted records
    INSERT INTO inventory.product_log (
        action_type,
        product_id,
        product_name,
        quantity,
        price
    )
    SELECT
        CASE
            WHEN EXISTS (SELECT * FROM inserted i WHERE i.product_id IS NOT NULL)
                THEN 'INSERT'
            ELSE 'UPDATE'
        END AS action_type,
        i.product_id,
        i.product_name,
        i.quantity,
        i.price
    FROM inserted i;
END;

AFTER INSERT, UPDATE: The trigger will fire after a row is inserted or updated in the products table.
INSERTED Table: This system-defined table contains the new or updated rows from the products table.
action_type: Determines whether the action was an INSERT or UPDATE.

Step 3. Test the Trigger
To test the trigger, insert or update a row in the products table.
-- Insert a new product
INSERT INTO inventory.products
    (product_id, product_name, quantity, price)
VALUES
    (1, 'Product A', 100, 19.99);

-- Update an existing product
UPDATE inventory.products
SET quantity = 150,
    price = 17.99
WHERE product_id = 1;

After running these statements, check the product_log table to see the log entries.
SELECT *
FROM inventory.product_log;

Conclusion
When it comes to automating and monitoring changes in your database, SQL triggers are indispensable. You may create a trigger that logs changes made to a table by following the above instructions. This will improve your ability to manage and audit your database by keeping a clear record of any data alterations.

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You frequently need to filter rows in SQL when retrieving data from linked tables based on information from another table. While both the IN and EXISTS clauses are frequently employed for this purpose, their internal operations differ. The query performance can be greatly affected by the selection you make, particularly when dealing with huge datasets. This post will examine performance factors, go over when to utilize each, and examine the distinctions between IN and EXISTS.

Overview of IN and EXISTS

• IN Clause: The IN clause checks if a specified value matches any value in a subquery or list.
• EXISTS Clause: The EXISTS clause checks for the existence of rows returned by a subquery.

Syntax Overview

Here’s a simple example illustrating the basic syntax for both.

-- Using IN
SELECT *
FROM Employees e
WHERE e.DepartmentId IN (SELECT d.Id FROM Departments d WHERE d.Name = 'Sales');

-- Using EXISTS
SELECT *
FROM Employees e
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT 1 FROM Departments d WHERE d.Id = e.DepartmentId AND d.Name = 'Sales');

While both queries aim to achieve the same result, the way they are processed by the SQL engine differs, which can have significant performance implications.

Key Differences Between IN and EXISTS

1. Subquery Context
   • IN: The subquery in an IN clause returns a list of values that the outer query compares against. It’s essentially performing a value-based comparison.
   • EXISTS: The subquery in an EXISTS clause returns a Boolean (true/false). It checks whether any rows exist that satisfy the condition without returning actual data.
2. Handling NULLs
   • IN: When the subquery contains NULL values, it can lead to unexpected results. The IN clause returns no rows if NULL is included in the list and isn’t handled properly.
   • EXISTS: The EXISTS clause is generally unaffected by NULL values because it only checks for the presence of rows.
3. Performance in Large Datasets
   • IN: The IN clause is better suited for small datasets. As the number of items in the subquery grows, performance can degrade due to the need to evaluate all values in the list.
   • EXISTS: The EXISTS clause typically performs better with larger datasets because it can short-circuit as soon as it finds a matching row. It doesn't evaluate the entire list if a match is found early.
4. Correlated Subqueries
   • IN: The IN clause is often less efficient with correlated subqueries (subqueries that reference columns from the outer query).
   • EXISTS: The EXISTS clause is more efficient in correlated subqueries since it can stop execution early once it finds a match.

Performance Considerations

The performance difference between IN and EXISTS largely depends on the dataset size, index availability, and the structure of the subquery.

1. When to Use IN
   • Use IN when the subquery returns a small list of values, and there is no need to handle complex or large datasets.
   • Ideal when you have a predefined list of values (e.g., WHERE DepartmentId IN (1, 2, 3)).
2. When to Use EXISTS
   • Use EXISTS for large datasets or when the subquery involves complex joins or filtering.
   • Best suited for scenarios where the outer query’s condition depends on the existence of related data, especially when working with correlated subqueries.
3. Query Execution Plans: Examining the execution plans of queries is crucial for understanding the performance impact. The SQL optimizer may rewrite the query internally, but generally.
   • IN often results in a table scan, especially if the list is large.
   • EXISTS can leverage index seeks and stop scanning once a match is found, making it faster in many cases.
4. Avoiding Common Pitfalls
   • Be cautious when using IN subqueries that might return NULL.
   • Ensure that your queries are optimized by using appropriate indexes, especially when working with large datasets.

Real-World Example: Comparing IN and EXISTS

Consider a scenario with two tables: Orders and Customers. You want to retrieve all customers who have placed orders.

-- Using IN
SELECT *
FROM Customers c
WHERE c.CustomerId IN (SELECT o.CustomerId FROM Orders o);

-- Using EXISTS
SELECT *
FROM Customers c
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT 1 FROM Orders o WHERE o.CustomerId = c.CustomerId);

In this example,

• The IN clause checks each CustomerId against a list of IDs returned by the subquery.
• The EXISTS clause stops checking as soon as it finds the first matching row in the Orders table, making it more efficient for large datasets.

Conclusion

Although both IN and EXISTS are useful in SQL querying, knowing when and how to utilize each is essential to creating effective queries. EXISTS performs well with huge datasets with connected subqueries, whereas the IN clause is better suited for straightforward comparisons and short datasets. You may optimize your SQL queries by making well-informed judgments based on an analysis of your particular use case and dataset.

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The ideas of a primary key and unique key are essential to relational database design as they guarantee data integrity and define the relationships between tables. Despite their apparent similarity, they have different responsibilities and traits. To help you grasp the distinctions between the Primary Key and Unique Key in SQL databases, this article will provide examples to illustrate each.

Is a Primary Key What?
A table's primary key is a column (or set of columns) that gives each entry in the table a unique identity. It guarantees that the value(s) in the main key column(s) are different in every row. The following guidelines must be followed by the main key:

• Uniqueness: Every value in the primary key column(s) must be unique.
• Not Null: The primary key column(s) cannot contain NULL values.
• Single Primary Key: A table can have only one primary key.

Example of Primary Key
Consider a table called Employees that stores information about employees in a company.
CREATE TABLE Employees (
    EmployeeID INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
    FirstName NVARCHAR(50),
    LastName NVARCHAR(50),
    Email NVARCHAR(100)
);

In this example, the EmployeeID column is the primary key. Each employee has a unique EmployeeID, ensuring that no two employees can have the same identifier.

What is a Unique Key?
A Unique Key is a constraint that ensures all values in a column (or a set of columns) are unique across the database. The unique key enforces uniqueness but, unlike a primary key, it can accept one or more NULL values.

    Uniqueness: Each value in the unique key column(s) must be unique.
    Allows NULLs: A unique key can have NULL values, but only one NULL value is allowed in a column.
    Multiple Unique Keys: A table can have multiple unique keys.

Example of Unique Key
Let's extend the Employee's table to ensure that no two employees can have the same email address.

CREATE TABLE Employees (
    EmployeeID INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
    FirstName NVARCHAR(50),
    LastName NVARCHAR(50),
    Email NVARCHAR(100) UNIQUE
);

In this example, the Email column is defined as a unique key. This constraint ensures that every email address in the Employees table is unique, but it allows one record to have a NULL email address.

Key Differences between Primary Key and Unique Key
Uniqueness and NULL Handling

• Primary Key: Ensures uniqueness and does not allow NULL values.
• Unique Key: Ensures uniqueness but allows one NULL value per column.

Number of Keys per Table

• Primary Key: A table can have only one primary key.
• Unique Key: A table can have multiple unique keys.

Usage

• Primary Key: Used to uniquely identify each record in a table and often used in defining relationships between tables (e.g., foreign keys).
• Unique Key: Used to ensure that specific columns have unique values across the table, such as email addresses or social security numbers.

Index Creation

• Primary Key: Automatically creates a clustered index (if the table does not already have one).
• Unique Key: Creates a non-clustered index by default.

Real-World Scenario
Imagine you're designing a database for a school. You have a Student table, and you want to ensure that each student has a unique student ID and that no two students have the same email address.

CREATE TABLE Students (
    StudentID INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
    FirstName NVARCHAR(50),
    LastName NVARCHAR(50),
    Email NVARCHAR(100) UNIQUE,
    PhoneNumber NVARCHAR(15) UNIQUE
);

• StudentID is the primary key, uniquely identifying each student.
• Email and phone numbers are unique keys, ensuring that each student has a unique email and phone number.

Conclusion
The Primary Key and Unique Key are both essential for maintaining data integrity in SQL databases, but they serve different purposes. The primary key uniquely identifies each record and does not allow NULL values, whereas the unique key ensures uniqueness in a column but can accept a NULL value. Understanding these differences helps in designing efficient and reliable database schemas.

These concepts are fundamental in database management, and mastering them is crucial for anyone working with relational databases.

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The process of counting the rows in a table is one that developers frequently come with while working with SQL databases. For this purpose, COUNT(*) and COUNT(1) are two often used functions. Contrary to popular belief, there aren't any significant performance disparities between the two.

Understanding the Functions

• COUNT(*): This function counts the total number of rows in a table, including those with NULL values.
• COUNT(1): This function also counts the total number of rows in a table, regardless of NULL values.

Performance
The results of COUNT(*) and COUNT(1) are not significantly different, despite what the general public believes. These functions are efficiently optimized by modern database engines, which handle them nearly in the same way. Hardware resources, query complexity, indexing, and other factors have a greater impact on query performance.

Best Practices
Consistency: For better code readability and maintainability, it's generally recommended to use COUNT(*).
Focus on optimization: Instead of spending time debating COUNT(*) vs COUNT(1), concentrate on optimizing your SQL queries through proper indexing and query structure.

Conclusion
While there is a technical distinction between COUNT(*) and COUNT(1), it has no practical impact on query performance. Prioritize code readability and maintainability by opting for COUNT(*). By understanding this fundamental concept and focusing on query optimization, you can write more efficient and effective SQL code.

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In the world of SQL, knowing how to efficiently aggregate and analyze data is essential. For this reason, SQL offers two very effective tools: GROUP BY and PARTITION BY. Despite their initial similarities, they have varied functions and are employed in various situations. The differences between GROUP BY and PARTITION BY, their applications, and real-world examples will all be covered in this article to help you select the best tool for your data analysis requirements.

Understanding GROUP BY
GROUP BY is used to aggregate data across multiple records by one or more columns. It groups rows with the same values in specified columns into aggregated data like SUM, AVG, COUNT, etc. It's commonly used in conjunction with aggregate functions to perform calculations on each group of rows.
Syntax
SELECT column_name, AGGREGATE_FUNCTION(column_name)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name;

Example
Suppose we have a sales table with the following data.

To find the total sales amount for each product, we use GROUP BY.

This query will return

Understanding PARTITION BY
PARTITION BY is used with window functions to perform calculations across a set of table rows that are somehow related to the current row. Unlike GROUP BY, it doesn't reduce the number of rows in the result set. Instead, it adds a new column with the aggregated result for each row.

Syntax
SELECT column_name,
       WINDOW_FUNCTION() OVER (PARTITION BY column_name)
FROM table_name;

Example
Using the same sales table, let's say we want to calculate the total sales for each product but display it alongside each row.
SELECT
    product,
    amount,
    SUM(amount) OVER (PARTITION BY product) AS total_sales
FROM
    sales;

This query will return.

# 'total_sales': 'window_function',
(B, SUM, OVER)
50 |

Here, the total_sales column shows the sum of sales for each product next to every row, retaining all the original rows.

Key Differences

• Purpose
  • GROUP BY is used for aggregating data to produce a summary row for each group.
  • PARTITION BY is used to perform calculations across related rows without collapsing them into summary rows.

• Result Set
  • GROUP BY reduces the number of rows by grouping them.
  • PARTITION BY keeps the original number of rows, adding new columns with aggregated data.

• Usage Context
  • Use GROUP BY when you need summarized results, like total sales per product.
  • Use PARTITION BY when you need detailed results along with aggregated values, like total sales displayed alongside each sale.

Practical Scenarios

• Sales Reporting
  • GROUP BY: To get a report of total sales per product.
  • PARTITION BY: To analyze the sales trend within each product category while keeping individual sales records visible.

• Employee Performance
  • GROUP BY: To find average performance metrics per department.
  • PARTITION BY: To show each employee's performance metrics along with the department's average.

• Customer Transactions
  • GROUP BY: To calculate total transactions per customer.
  • PARTITION BY: To display each transaction along with the running total of transactions per customer.

Conclusion
Both GROUP BY and PARTITION BY are essential tools in SQL for data aggregation and analysis. GROUP BY is ideal for summary-level data, while PARTITION BY is powerful for detailed, row-level analysis with aggregated data. Understanding when and how to use these clauses will enhance your ability to write efficient and effective SQL queries, providing deeper insights into your data.

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Common Table Expressions (CTEs) and subqueries can be chosen based on a number of criteria, including performance, readability, maintainability, and use case specificity.

Subqueries
When to Use Subqueries?

• Simplicity: Use subqueries for simple, straightforward queries where the logic is easy to understand without nesting.
• Single Use: When the result of the subquery is only needed once within the main query.
• Inline Calculations: When performing calculations or filtering within a single SQL statement.
• Performance: In some databases, subqueries might perform better due to optimization techniques. However, this can vary depending on the database engine and query complexity.

    -- Select all employees whose salaries are not null
    SELECT *
    FROM Employees
    WHERE EmployeeID IN (
        SELECT EmployeeID
        FROM Employees
        WHERE Salary IS NOT NULL
    );

Common Table Expressions (CTEs)
When to Use CTEs?

1. Readability and Maintainability: CTEs are easier to read and maintain, especially for complex queries. They allow you to break down a query into understandable parts.
2. Reusability: When you need to use the result of a subquery multiple times within a query.
3. Recursion: Use recursive CTEs for hierarchical data or to perform recursive operations.
4. Modularity: When you want to modularize complex query logic for better organization and readability.
5. Intermediate Results: When breaking down complex logic into steps can help in debugging and optimizing queries.

    -- Using a CTE to select all employees whose salaries are not null
    WITH FilteredEmployees AS (
        SELECT EmployeeID, FirstName, LastName, Department, Salary, HireDate
        FROM Employees
        WHERE Salary IS NOT NULL
    )
    SELECT *
    FROM FilteredEmployees;

Comparing Use Cases
Readability:
    CTE: Better for complex queries due to modularity and readability.
    Subquery: This can become difficult to read if nested deeply within the main query.
Maintainability:
    CTE: Easier to maintain due to clear structure and separation of logic.
    Subquery: Harder to maintain, especially for complex and deeply nested queries.
Performance: Performance can vary based on the database engine and query structure. Some engines optimize CTEs better, while others might handle subqueries more efficiently. It's crucial to test and profile queries in your specific database environment.
Recursion:
    CTE: The only choice for recursive queries.
    Subquery: Not suitable for recursion.

Example with both CTE and Subquery
Let's consider a scenario where you want to retrieve employees with a salary greater than a certain threshold, but you also want to get the average salary of their department.

Using Subquery
SELECT EmployeeID, FirstName, LastName, Department, Salary
FROM Employees e
WHERE Salary > (
    SELECT AVG(Salary)
    FROM Employees
    WHERE Department = e.Department
);

Using CTE
WITH DepartmentAvgSalaries AS (
    SELECT Department, AVG(Salary) AS AvgSalary
    FROM Employees
    GROUP BY Department
)
SELECT e.EmployeeID, e.FirstName, e.LastName, e.Department, e.Salary
FROM Employees e
JOIN DepartmentAvgSalaries das ON e.Department = das.Department
WHERE e.Salary > das.AvgSalary;

Use subqueries for simpler, straightforward, and single-use cases.
Use CTEs for complex, multi-step, and recursive queries, as well as for improving readability and maintainability.

Always consider the complexity of your query and the need for readability and maintainability, and then choose the approach that best fits those needs.

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SQL Server is typically installed by default and functions perfectly. However, in certain unique circumstances, which may result from security settings, a Windows account cannot open a SQL Server database. This article provides a solution to the issue.

Issue
If your SQL Server database cannot be started automatically, try starting it from a service.

Find SQL Server and select Start in the upper left corner; however, an error notice appears.,Find SQL Server and select Start in the upper left corner; however, an error notice appears.

Fix
Right Click SQL Server in Service:

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Synonyms: What Are They?
A synonym is a type of database object that gives another database object, called the base object, a different name. The base object might be on a local or remote server.

Why Use Synonyms?

• Simplifying: They make the SQL queries simpler by giving complex object names shorter or more meaningful names.
• Abstraction: By hiding the specifics of the underlying database objects, synonyms enable modifications to those items without impacting the code that uses them as references.
• Flexibility: You can modify the database structure using them without needing to redo the current SQL code.

Syntax

CREATE SYNONYM schema_name.synonym_name FOR [object]

Example. Create a Synonym for a local object.
I have a Sales. Customer table in the AdventureWorks2022 database. Now, I am going to create a synonym in the MyWork database with the name dbo.SalesCustomer.
--Customer table in AdventureWorks2022
SELECT * FROM AdventureWorks2022.Sales.Customer

--Create a synonym for the Customer table MyWork databasel
USE MyWork
CREATE SYNONYM dbo.SalesCustomer
FOR AdventureWorks2022.Sales.Customer

--Query synonym to access the Sales.Customer base table
SELECT * FROM dbo.SalesCustomer

Output

Example. Create a Synonym for a remote object.

In this example, I have the AdventureWorks 2022.Person.[Address] table on the MyDevServer linked server. Now, I am going to create a synonym named dbo.PersonAddress.
CREATE SYNONYM dbo.PersonAddress FOR MyDevServer.AdventureWorks2022.Person.[Address]

What operations can we do using Synonyms?

The following operations can be performed using synonyms.

• SELECT
• UPDATE
• EXECUTE
• INSERT
• DELETE
• SUB-SELECTS

Get information about synonyms

The catalog view contains an entry for each synonym in a given database.

SELECT * FROM sys.synonyms

Output

Conclusion
Synonyms allow us to utilize shorter, more understandable names for complex or remote database objects, which simplifies and maintains your SQL code.

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//create Temporary Table

CREATE TABLE #Table_Details (
    table_name sysname,
    row_count INT,
    reserved_size VARCHAR(50),
    data_size VARCHAR(50),
    index_size VARCHAR(50),
    unused_size VARCHAR(50)
);
INSERT INTO #Table_Details
EXEC sp_msforeachtable 'sp_spaceused ''?''';

sp_MSforeachtable is a system-stored procedure in Microsoft SQL Server that allows you to execute a specified command against each table in a database.

Ensure that the command you are executing is appropriate for all tables, as sp_MSforeachtable does not check if the command is valid for each individual table.

EXEC sp_spaceused ''?'': The sp_spaceused stored procedure is called for each table. The ? is a placeholder that gets replaced with the table name.
SELECT
    TD.table_name,
    TD.row_count,
    COUNT(*) AS col_count,
    TD.data_size
FROM
    #Table_Details TD
INNER JOIN
    information_schema.columns b ON TD.table_name COLLATE database_default = b.table_name COLLATE database_default
GROUP BY
    TD.table_name,
    TD.row_count,
    TD.data_size
ORDER BY
    CAST(REPLACE(TD.data_size, ' KB', '') AS INT) DESC;
DROP TABLE #Table_Details;

Order By is used to get the biggest table first.

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